Metacognitive thinking holds the key to independent, strategic learners ready to tackle any challenge that comes their way, making metacognitive strategies increasingly important in the educator toolkit.
Often described as "thinking about thinking”, metacognition is crucial in an era marked by rapid technological advancements and AI integration that calls for self-aware students who excel in self-regulating their learning. In this landscape, the metacognitive thinking that educators have long sought to instill takes on new significance, supporting students to evaluate their own progress, adapt their learning strategies, and remain resilient in a world of constant change.
In this blog post, we examine what metacognitive thinking entails, how it impacts student learning, and the metacognitive strategies educators can adopt to strengthen this skill in their students’ academic journey and inform their professional lives.
What is metacognition?
The concept of metacognition was pioneered by development psychologist John Flavell in the 1970s, on the premise that when children develop an awareness of their own thought processes, they gain greater control over their learning which leads to improved academic performance. The theory’s roots, however, trace back even earlier to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle and Socrates who believed that knowledge of the ‘self’ was a prerequisite for wisdom.
According to Flavell (1979), metacognition is broadly defined as "knowledge and cognition about cognitive phenomena", a form of higher-order thinking that can be classified by the following key elements:
- Metacognitive knowledge: One's knowledge or beliefs about factors that affect cognitive activities, operating at a person, task, and strategy level.
- Metacognitive experiences: The subjective internal responses of an individual to their own metacognitive knowledge, goals, or strategies.
- Metacognitive goals or tasks: These desired outcomes or objectives of a cognitive pursuit, such as comprehension, memorization, or problem-solving.
- Metacognitive strategies or actions: The ordered processes used to control one's own cognitive activities and ensure that a cognitive goal has been met.
If a learner lacks metacognitive knowledge—in other words, awareness of their own limitations as a learner or the complexity of the task at hand—then they are not equipped to take pre-emptive steps and overcome problems. And without engaging in metacognitive experiences, such as reflecting on moments of confusion or recognising feelings of doubt during the learning process, they miss valuable cues that signal the need to adjust their approach or seek help.
Development of metacognition in research
Our understanding of metacognition has evolved and it continues to be a dynamic research field. Fellows trailblazers in metacognitive theory, Ann Brown and Linda Baker’s work including Metacognition Skills and Reading (1980), helped expand the concept of ‘metacognitive self-regulation’ as it relates to student remediation, exploring fundamental questions such as “What types of strategies are available to a learner and with what efficiency can they be orchestrated”? It’s helped pave the way for interventions aimed at improving students' metacognitive knowledge and strategies.
Building upon Flavell’s and Brown’s foundational work in metacognition research, Gregory Schraw and David Moshman proposed a triadic model in 1995 to further explain how learners select, implement, and evaluate learning strategies based on their metacognitive knowledge:
- Declarative knowledge: Knowledge about one's self as a learner and what can influence one's performance.
- Procedural knowledge: Skills, heuristics (mental shortcuts), and strategies. Knowledge about how to do things.
- Conditional knowledge: Knowledge about when and in what conditions certain knowledge is useful.
Metacognition draws parallels with a growth mindset in that both emphasize abilities can be developed through effort, reflection, and the strategic use of effective learning techniques. Metacognitive thinking can mean the difference between feelings of helplessness that can derail a student’s academic progress, and resilience to embrace challenges and realise that success is within their reach. It’s no surprise, then, that it’s gaining more attention in the AI era to keep students motivated amid many temptations to outsource their output and thinking.
What are metacognitive strategies?
Recognising the importance of teaching metacognition is one thing, but imbuing students with this mentality and skill requires intentional instruction and consistent practice.
Cornell University’s Center for Teaching Innovation describes metacognitive strategies as “techniques to help students develop an awareness of their thinking processes as they learn…help[ing] students focus with greater intention, reflect on their existing knowledge versus information they still need to learn, recognize errors in their thinking, and develop practices for effective learning.”
Beyond a classroom setting, the implications of metacognitive potential are far-reaching. In their research on metacognition’s role in forming autonomous, effective students, and the responsibility of educators to scaffold this process, Rivas et al. (2002) describe how the “need to “teach how to learn” and the capacity to “learn how to learn” in order to achieve autonomous learning and transfer it to any area of our lives will let us face problems more successfully.”
Writing for Life Sciences Education, Stanton et al. (2021) highlight three of the most effective metacognitive learning strategies: (1) self-testing, which involves checking understanding of material and identifying gaps; (2) spacing, which refers to spreading learning of the same material over multiple sessions to aid in planning and information consolidation; and (3) interleaving, which entails alternating the study of information from one category with the study of information from another category, in order to discriminate between them and correctly solve problems.
Metacognition across the academic journey
As with most things, the earlier students start to think metacognitively, the easier it becomes. In secondary education (or even earlier), the groundwork for metacognition can be laid, covering the basics of reflecting on their learning which helps them build habits that support academic growth. In fact, research has shown a ‘prolonged developmental trajectory’ for metacognition during adolescence, with the greatest capacity for metacognitive improvement between the ages of 11 and 17 (Weil et al., 2013).
Furthermore, in their literature review of the efficacy of metacognitive teaching in schools examining 50 different studies, Perry et al. (2018) concluded that “metacognitive approaches to teaching and learning have the potential to radically improve the outcomes and life chances of children, with some evidence suggesting that this is especially the case for disadvantaged children.” At this secondary level, metacognitive strategies typically involve organising study schedules, monitoring comprehension, and developing test-taking strategies.
In higher education, exposure to metacognition takes on a more advanced and self-directed form. Students are expected to evaluate the effectiveness of their learning strategies, adapt to complex and discipline-specific challenges, and integrate critical thinking into their approach to problem-solving. Of course, metacognitive awareness alone does not guarantee effective regulatory behaviour or habits in student learning. Cao and Nietfeld’s (2007) research recorded discrepancies between students’ theory of study strategy selection and use and their actual use of the study strategies; calling for greater vigilance and intervention to help students not only understand but master the recommended metacognitive strategies.
What is a real-world example of metacognitive strategy?
Rewind a few short years ago, and the practice of metacognition was memorably tested with the sudden transition to remote learning caused by the global pandemic. The familiarity of in-person instruction was replaced with considerations around learning platforms and online modes of delivery, prompting students to hone their metacognitive skills to adapt their learning strategies, manage their time effectively, and avoid learning shortcuts or outright cheating. Of course, not all learners were equally prepared to self-regulate, resulting in some learning losses, with research indicating that the degree to which students exhibit metacognitive awareness is a predictor of readiness for online learning (Karatas and Arpaci, 2021).
This lesson of adaptation can be applied to the new frontier of mainstream AI use by students. As AI increasingly shapes how students access and engage with information, the ability to reflect on their own thought processes, evaluate the effectiveness of AI-generated outputs, and determine when and how to use these tools responsibly has become essential. As Mason et al. (2023) deduce in Times Higher Education, “It will be our job as humans to bring metacognitive skills to bear in making use of human and artificial intelligence in the best possible way to achieve unbiased and well-informed judgements and decisions.”
Teaching metacognitive strategies in the classroom
It is only through experience, explicit educator instruction, scaffolding and modelling, as well as ample opportunities for practice, that students can develop into competent metacognitive adults and professionals. Guidance is key to overcoming common obstacles and missteps faced by students, such as the tendency to focus on recognizing concepts rather than recalling them to drive their confidence, and the challenge of developing a true sense of learning preparedness, free from distortion (Stanton et al., 2021).
Consider enhancing your curriculum with these activities to cultivate students' metacognitive skills and independent thinking:
- Self-questioning: Encourage students to pause during tasks and ask themselves questions like "Am I on the right track?" or "What could I do differently?”.
- Self-testing: Require students to regularly quiz themselves on key concepts or material with an emphasis on active recall and application of information.
- Think-aloud protocols: Have students verbalize their thought processes while solving problems or completing tasks.
- Reflection journals and ‘exam wrappers’: Ask students to write about their learning experiences, challenges, and strategies for improvement.
- Goal-setting and planning: Teach students to set specific learning goals and create plans to achieve them.
- Rubric co-design: Involve students in creating assessment rubrics to help them understand learning objectives and self-evaluate their work.
- Peer teaching: Have students explain concepts to each other, promoting deeper understanding and metacognitive awareness.
- Error analysis: Encourage students to analyze their mistakes and develop strategies to avoid similar errors in the future.
- Learning strategy discussions: Facilitate class discussions about different learning strategies and their effectiveness.
- Mindfulness exercises: Incorporate brief meditation or mindfulness activities to help students become more aware of their thought processes.
Stanton et al. (2021) have also released a comprehensive set of teaching and learning resources including an instructor checklist that we encourage you to explore, covering three areas: Identifying and Supplementing Students’ Metacognitive Knowledge, Supporting Students’ Metacognitive Regulation, and Building Social Metacognition.
Using metacognitive strategies to achieve self-directed learning
An enormous benefit of metacognitive strategies is that they enable independent or self-directed learning (SDL), which is gaining traction in the education community as a way to elevate performance and ensure students and institutions alike meet emerging 21st century demands.
For instance, in response to lower success and course completion rates of students in online STEM courses, a US study by Wasserman et al. (2024) proposed an SDL framework—and by extension, metacognitive practice—as a solution for improving curricular outcomes. However, its faculty survey revealed numerous barriers to SDL adoption, with insufficient time, perception of more urgent areas of instruction, and insufficient latitude due to course requirements, rounding out the top three pain points.
Confronting the assumption that most undergraduate students enter tertiary education with sufficient SDL skills, the researchers advocate for greater faculty training and institutional buy-in to strengthen and scale up online instructional practices that support SDL (Wasserman et al., 2024). Beyond online pedagogy, it’s a sentiment echoed by Robinson and Persky (2020), who contend that educators in must scaffold and structure learning to develop the underlying soft skills needed for students to be successful as self-directed learners, and “to shift from being the “sage on the stage” to either a “guide on the side” or, ideally, an authentic co-learner.”
They outline a six-step process to SLD in higher education, during which control of the learning environment can be gradually shifted from the instructor to the student:
- Developing goals for study.
- Outlining assessment with respect to how the learner will know when they achieve those goals.
- Identify the structure and sequence of activities.
- Lay out a timeline to complete activities.
- Identify resources to achieve each goal.
- Locate a mentor/faculty member to provide feedback on the plan.
Overview: Adopting metacognitive strategies for student growth
Metacognitive strategies are especially vital for 21st-century learners navigating an AI-enabled world. Research highlights that as automation and AI take over routine tasks, skills such as problem-solving, adaptability, and self-directed learning become essential for success.
However, metacognitive awareness and regulation are often difficult to directly measure, and it underscores the importance of guidance and intervention. While fostering metacognitive skills requires a significant investment of time and effort from educators, the long-term benefits are clear.
By incorporating metacognitive teaching into the curriculum, educators can drive meaningful improvements in student engagement, enhance learning outcomes, and boost course retention rates.